eighty-eight sources, so the museum can be read without them.

1. 01Bonnin · 2022

   Time Measurement in Antiquity

   In A General History of Horology, Oxford University Press, pp. 1–26 · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863915.003.0001

   Sundials and water clocks in Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Rome, and the distinction between a clepsydra and a water clock.

2. 02Neugebauer · 1955

   The Egyptian “decans”

   Vistas in Astronomy, vol. 1, pp. 47–51 · doi:10.1016/0083-6656(55)90011-8

   The star groups whose successive risings marked out the divisions of the Egyptian night.

3. 03Mills · 1996

   Altitude sundials for seasonal and equal hours

   Annals of Science, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 75–84 · doi:10.1080/00033799600200121

   How an instrument has to be cut differently for hours that change length with the season and hours that do not.

4. 04Turner · 2022

   Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages

   In A General History of Horology, Oxford University Press, pp. 77–136 · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863915.003.0003

   Sundials and water clocks in the Byzantine and Arab–Islamic worlds and in medieval Christian Europe, and the arrival of weight-driven clocks.

5. 05Addomine · 2022

   Public Clocks from the Thirteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries

   In A General History of Horology, Oxford University Press, pp. 137–152 · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863915.003.0004

   The shift from rural timekeeping to urban clock-watching, and the turret clocks and escapements that carried it.

6. 06Denny · 2010

   Verge and Foliot Clock Escapement: A Simple Dynamical System

   The Physics Teacher, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 374–376 · doi:10.1119/1.3479712

   Why the earliest mechanical escapement keeps poor time: its period depends on the drive and on friction rather than on anything intrinsic.

7. 07Matthes · 2022

   The Domestic Clock in Europe

   In A General History of Horology, Oxford University Press, pp. 153–184 · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863915.003.0005

   Weight and spring-driven domestic clocks from the late thirteenth century to the end of the eighteenth, split at the invention of the pendulum.

8. 08Whitestone · 2012

   Christian Huygens' Lost and Forgotten Pamphlet of his Pendulum Invention

   Annals of Science, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 91–104 · doi:10.1080/00033790.2011.637470

   Recovers a Huygens publication of 1657, earlier than the Horologium of 1658 previously taken as the first announcement, and reproduces the illustration of a clock different from any then known as his earliest.

9. 09Betts · 2022

   The Quest for Precision

   In A General History of Horology, Oxford University Press, pp. 311–340 · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863915.003.0011

   Observatory regulators, the longitude problem, and Harrison's route to the marine chronometer.

10. 10Bartky · 2000

    Inventing Standard Railway Time

    Chapter 11 of Selling the True Time, Stanford University Press, pp. 137–146 · doi:10.1515/9781503618701-016

    Standard time as a railway arrangement first and a legal one second.

11. 11International Meridian Conference · 1884

    International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day: Protocols of the Proceedings

    gutenberg.org/ebooks/17759 · full text, public domain

    The primary record, votes and all. Greenwich adopted as the initial meridian by 22 to 1 with 2 abstentions; the universal day defined as a mean solar day beginning at mean midnight there, carried 15 to 2 with 7 abstentions.

12. 12Nature · 1884

    The Prime Meridian Conference

    Nature, vol. 31, no. 787, pp. 82–83 · doi:10.1038/031082c0

    A contemporary report of the resolutions, written while the outcome was still news.

13. 13Essen & Parry · 1955

    An Atomic Standard of Frequency and Time Interval: A Cæsium Resonator

    Nature, vol. 176, no. 4476, pp. 280–282 · doi:10.1038/176280a0

    The caesium resonator at the National Physical Laboratory, reported by the two people who built it.

14. 14Bullard · 1955

    An Atomic Standard of Frequency and Time Interval: Definition of the Second of Time

    Nature, vol. 176, no. 4476, p. 282 · doi:10.1038/176282a0

    The companion note, published the same day, arguing about what the second should now be defined as.

15. 15CGPM · 1960, resolution 9

    Definition of the unit of time (second)

    Bureau International des Poids et Mesures · doi:10.59161/cgpm1960res9e

    The ephemeris second: a fixed fraction of the tropical year for 1900.

16. 16CGPM · 1967, resolution 1

    SI unit of time (second)

    Bureau International des Poids et Mesures · doi:10.59161/cgpm1967res1e

    The second redefined as 9,192,631,770 periods of a specified caesium-133 hyperfine transition.

17. 17CGPM · 1975, resolution 5

    Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

    Bureau International des Poids et Mesures · doi:10.59161/cgpm1975res5e

    The endorsement of UTC as the basis for civil time.

18. 18CGPM · 2022, resolution 4

    On the use and future development of UTC

    Bureau International des Poids et Mesures · doi:10.59161/cgpm2022res4e

    The decision that the maximum value for the difference UT1 minus UTC will be increased in, or before, 2035, on the grounds that leap-second discontinuities risk serious malfunctions in critical digital infrastructure.

19. 19Wynands & Weyers · 2005

    Atomic fountain clocks

    Metrologia, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. S64–S79 · doi:10.1088/0026-1394/42/3/S08

    How the primary standards that realise the second work, and how well.

20. 20Arias & Petit · 2019

    The Hyperfine Transition for the Definition of the Second

    Annalen der Physik, vol. 531, no. 5 · doi:10.1002/andp.201900068

    From the astronomical definition to today the accuracy of the second has improved by eight orders of magnitude, reaching parts in 10¹⁶ for the best caesium clocks, while optical standards now reach parts in 10¹⁸ and put the definition itself under review.

21. 21Bartky · 1989

    The adoption of standard time

    Technology and Culture, vol. 30, no. 1, p. 25 · doi:10.2307/3105430

    How standard time came in, driven by railway and telegraph coordination.

22. 22Thompson · 1967

    Time, work-discipline, and industrial capitalism

    Past & Present, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 56–97 · doi:10.1093/past/38.1.56 · jstor.org/stable/649749

    The classic account of the shift from task-oriented work to clock-oriented work, and of time-discipline as something taught.

23. 23Dohrn-van Rossum · 1996

    History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders

    University of Chicago Press, trans. Thomas Dunlap · archive.org · lending copy

    How the equal hour displaced the unequal one, and what changed in ordinary life once towns kept a single count.

24. 24Ogle · 2015

    The Global Transformation of Time, 1870–1950

    Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-28614-6 · hup.harvard.edu

    A revisionist account of the time-unification campaigns, and of how slowly and unevenly a supposedly universal grid was laid down.

1. 37Gibbon · 1977

   Scalar expectancy theory and Weber's law in animal timing

   Psychological Review, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 279–325 · doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.279

   The founding statement of scalar expectancy theory: timing variability is proportional to the duration being timed.

2. 38Gibbon, Church & Meck · 1984

   Scalar timing in memory

   Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 423, no. 1, pp. 52–77 · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1984.tb23417.x

   Sets out the pacemaker–accumulator model that later timing work builds on or argues with.

3. 39Merchant, Harrington & Meck · 2013

   Neural basis of the perception and estimation of time

   Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 313–336 · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-062012-170349

   A review of where timing lives in the brain, and of why no single clock organ covers the range of durations people handle.

4. 40Block & Zakay · 1997

   Prospective and retrospective duration judgments: a meta-analytic review

   Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 184–197 · doi:10.3758/BF03209393

   Across twenty experiments, knowing in advance that you will be asked how long something took changes the answer. Prospective judgements run longer and vary less than remembered ones.

5. 41Seifried & Ulrich · 2010

   Exogenous visual attention prolongs perceived duration

   Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 68–85 · doi:10.3758/s13414-010-0005-6

   Drawing attention to a stimulus makes its duration feel longer.

6. 42Droit-Volet & Meck · 2007

   How emotions colour our perception of time

   Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 504–513 · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.008

   Reviews how arousal and emotional valence push perceived duration in opposite directions, by changing both clock speed and attention to time.

7. 43Wittmann · 2009

   The inner experience of time

   Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, vol. 364, no. 1525, pp. 1955–1967 · doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0003 · open access

   Argues that the state of the body is where duration gets encoded.

8. 44Marx, Cortese, Koelch & Hacker · 2022

   Meta-analysis: altered perceptual timing abilities in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

   Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 61, no. 7, pp. 866–880 · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.12.004

   Pools 55 studies of time discrimination, estimation, production and reproduction. Differences are clearest for very brief durations, and the authors read the estimation and production results as consistent with a faster-running internal clock.

9. 45Zheng, Wang, Chiu & Shum · 2022

   Time perception deficits in children and adolescents with ADHD: a meta-analysis

   Journal of Attention Disorders, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 267–281 · doi:10.1177/1087054720978557

   27 studies, 1,620 participants with ADHD against 1,249 controls. Timing is less accurate and less precise, with a tendency to overestimate intervals, and the effect holds across task type and stimulus modality.

10. 46Aschoff · 1998

    Human perception of short and long time intervals: its correlation with body temperature and the duration of wake time

    Journal of Biological Rhythms, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 437–442 · doi:10.1177/074873098129000264

    In subjects isolated from all time cues, produced intervals of five and ten seconds tracked body temperature, while produced hours tracked how long the person had been awake. Short and long durations are not timed by the same machinery.

The two ADHD papers report group differences on laboratory tasks. Neither is a diagnostic test, and neither went anywhere near a timer app. They back the premise that a clock is a poor instrument for felt duration. Whether the timer in the shop helps anybody is not something that can be cited.

1. 59Universal Edition

   Steve Reich, Piano Phase (1967), for two pianos or two marimbas

   universaledition.com · the publisher's work page

   The score's own catalogue entry: composed 1967, for two pianos or two marimbas. No duration is given.

2. 60Schwarz · 1981

   Steve Reich: Music as a Gradual Process, Part II

   Perspectives of New Music, vol. 20, no. 1/2, p. 225 · doi:10.2307/942414

   A close analysis of the phase pieces and of what Reich meant by a process being audible.

3. 61Basinski

   The Disintegration Loops

   williambasinski.bandcamp.com · the artist's own page

   The release page for volume one, which gives dlp 1.1 as 1:03:35.

4. 62Kemper · 2019

   (De)compositions: Time and Technology in William Basinski's The Disintegration Loops (2002)

   Intermédialités, no. 33 · doi:10.7202/1065020ar · open access

   On the tape decay as the compositional method rather than as an accident that happened to a recording.

5. 63Museum of Modern Art

   On Kawara, APR. 24, 1990, from the Today series

   moma.org/collection/works/79067

   A collection record for one canvas, with the series description and the newspaper box.

6. 64Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum

   Paintings: Today Series / Date Paintings

   guggenheim.org · from the museum's On Kawara—Silence materials

   The series ran from 4 January 1966 to Kawara's death in 2014: nearly three thousand paintings over forty-eight years, made in more than a hundred and thirty places, each following a strict set of rules and carrying the date in white on a monochrome ground.

7. 65Rorimer · 1991

   The Date Paintings of On Kawara

   Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, p. 120 · doi:10.2307/4101587

   The rules Kawara set himself, and what the series does that a single painting cannot.

8. 66Woo · 2010

   On Kawara's Date Paintings: Series of Horror and Boredom

   Art Journal, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 62–72 · doi:10.1080/00043249.2010.10791384

   A reading of the series that takes its repetitiveness as the subject.

9. 67M+ , Hong Kong

   Tehching Hsieh, One Year Performance 1980–1981

   mplus.org.hk · collection record

   What the work consists of now: time cards, poster, photographs, the clock itself, and documents attesting to the conditions.

10. 68Kee · 2016

    Orders of Law in the One Year Performances of Tehching Hsieh

    American Art, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 72–91 · doi:10.1086/686549

    The performances read through the rules, contracts and witnessing that hold them together.

11. 69Tate

    Christian Marclay, The Clock, 2010

    tate.org.uk/art/artworks/marclay-the-clock-t14038

    The collection record, including the joint acquisition with the Centre Pompidou and the Israel Museum.

12. 70Levinson · 2015

    Time and Time Again: Temporality, Narrativity, and Spectatorship in Christian Marclay's The Clock

    Cinema Journal, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 88–109 · doi:10.1353/cj.2015.0030

    Describes the work as a twenty-four-hour collage whose excerpted timepieces are synchronised with the moment the audience sees them, so cinematic and actual time are made to coincide.

13. 71Museum of Modern Art

    Felix Gonzalez-Torres, “Untitled” (Perfect Lovers), 1991

    moma.org/collection/works/81074

    The collection record: two clocks and paint on wall, set to the same time, drifting out of sync, resettable when one stops.

14. 72Museum of Modern Art

    Salvador Dalí, The Persistence of Memory, 1931

    moma.org/collection/works/79018

    The museum's own record: oil on canvas, 9½ × 13 in. (24.1 × 33 cm). Dalí died in 1989, so under the life-plus-seventy term the work stays in copyright in the European Union until the end of 2059. It is reproduced nowhere on this site; room 08 describes it in words and sends you here.

15. 73Reich

    Composer catalogue

    boosey.com/composer/Steve Reich

    The rest of the phase pieces, and the tape works that led to them.

16. 74Basinski · 2002–2003

    The Disintegration Loops

    williambasinski.bandcamp.com · artist's own page

    Twenty-year-old tape loops were transferred to digital and played until the coating fell off the backing, so the recording is the decay.

1. 82Buehler, Griffin & Ross · 1994

   Exploring the “planning fallacy”: Why people underestimate their task completion times

   Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 366–381 · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.366

   The founding statement of the planning fallacy: predictions about one's own tasks run short, and knowing about past overruns does not by itself correct them.

2. 83Gollwitzer · 1999

   Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans

   American Psychologist, vol. 54, no. 7, pp. 493–503 · doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

   Naming the situation and the response in advance, rather than only naming the goal.

3. 84Gollwitzer & Sheeran · 2006

   Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta-analysis of Effects and Processes

   Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 38, pp. 69–119 · doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1

   Findings from 94 independent tests: implementation intentions had a positive effect of medium-to-large magnitude (d = .65) on goal attainment.

4. 85Wittmann, Dinich, Merrow & Roenneberg · 2006

   Social Jetlag: Misalignment of Biological and Social Time

   Chronobiology International, vol. 23, no. 1–2, pp. 497–509 · doi:10.1080/07420520500545979

   The definition and first measurement of social jetlag, from 501 questionnaires covering sleep quality, current psychological wellbeing and stimulant consumption.

5. 86Wheaton, Chapman & Croft · 2016

   School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: A Review of the Literature

   Journal of School Health, vol. 86, no. 5, pp. 363–381 · doi:10.1111/josh.12388

   Reviews 38 reports. Most provide evidence that delaying school start times increases weeknight sleep among adolescents, primarily by delaying rise times.

6. 87Perlow · 1999

   The Time Famine: Toward a Sociology of Work Time

   Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 57–81 · doi:10.2307/2667031

   A nine-month field study of a software engineering team. The group's collective use of time produced its members' sense of having too much to do and too little time; altering that collective use improved productivity.

7. 88Sussman & Sekuler · 2022

   Feeling rushed? Perceived time pressure impacts executive function and stress

   Acta Psychologica, vol. 229, article 103702 · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103702

   Perceived time pressure measured against executive function and stress, in the same participants.